Salary Comparisons
The following sections present comparative data on salaries. After some general obervations about the relation between salaries and the organisation of university systems in different countries, we provide figures for different countries in absolute terms, adjusted to the cost of living and compared to GDP per capita. We also show salary progression by experience and gender.
These sections are constantly being updated with new information, given the wide interest in salary issues. As with all the ACO web pages, we invite you to send us comments and useful information and links on salaries in academia. To comment contact us by email.
Comparing salaries across countries requires some preliminary observations. Salary levels vary both across and within countries. Depending on national legislation and university governance, salary levels can be either fixed rigidly by the state or decided by universities.
In 2007, Bruegel calculated 'setting autonomy' by ten European countries and assigned values between 0 and 1. Many countries (Belgium, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Spain and Switzerland) had no autonomy (0). Sweden was the country with the highest autonomy (1), and The Netherlands (0.2), Denmark (0.5) and the UK (0.8) are located in between. The total for the ten European was 0.3 (Bruegel, 2007: 5).
Another issue is salary dispersion. There may be significant variations of salary at entry-level positions in universities in systems where universities are more or less free to set their own wages. Even within the same system salaries may vary according to seniority and/or merit. In systems where salaries progress mainly with seniority this progression is visible and can be measured. This is not true in those countries where salaries are fixed according to merit (e.g. record of publications).
In liberalised systems where universities are free to set their own wages, salary growth can be influenced not only by the dynamics of internal competition in the academic market, but also by external competition by non-academic agents, including private economic actors.
Overall, we can say that salaries are higher in systems where either 1) universities are autonomous, compete in the academic market and use salaries to attract and build a strong faculty, or 2) the state fixes high salaries. The UK and the US are typical examples of the first model. Switzerland is a good example of the second model. Universities from these three countries also dominate in the Shangai system for ranking universities.
The table below provides a comparison of avarage gross salaries across countires. Titles of academic positions differ form country to country but for means of comparison we have unified them into five categories. In countries where the position or its equivalent does not exist, the space is left blank. For more information on salaries as well as the start and maximum salary level, follow the link to the individual country pages.
Note that Ph.D. Candidate is included as a position, even though it is mostly in the Scadinavian countries that Ph.D. Candidates are considered employees with contractual rights equivalent to other academic positions.
Average Gross Salaries, €/month
|
|
PhD
|
Postdoc
|
Junior
Lecturer/
Assistant Professor
|
Senior
Lecturer/
Associate Professor
|
Full
Professor
|
|
Belgium
(2007)
|
--
|
--
|
4.318
|
5.138
|
6.625
|
Canada
(2007)
|
--
|
--
|
4.856
|
6.096
|
7.145
|
Denmark (2007)
|
3.152
|
4.560
|
--
|
5.499
|
6.974
|
Finland
(2007)
|
2.290
|
3.220
|
--
|
3.420
|
5.218
|
France
(2007)
|
--
|
2.500
|
--
|
3.000
|
4.500
|
Germany
(2007)
|
--
|
--
|
3.277
|
3.744
|
4.546
|
Ireland
(2004)
|
--
|
--
|
5.250
|
6.400/7.700*
|
9.750
|
Israel
(2007)
|
--
|
--
|
2.650
|
3.029/3.597*
|
4.733
|
Italy
(2004)
|
--
|
1.500
|
2.500
|
4.000
|
5.500
|
Netherlands
(2004)
|
--
|
--
|
3.974
|
5.541
|
6.544
|
|
Norway (2005)
|
3.203
|
3.950
|
--
|
4.330
|
5.297
|
Poland
(2006/2007)
|
--
|
--
|
586
|
1.127
|
1.758
|
Russia
(2007)
|
250
|
--
|
--
|
600**
|
900/1.100***
|
Spain
(2003)
|
--
|
1.584
|
2.250
|
2.750
|
3.584
|
Sweden
(2006)
|
2.365
|
3.317
|
3.142
|
3.800
|
5.145
|
UK
(2007)
|
--
|
3.813
|
4.766
|
5.842
|
6.353
|
Ukraine
(2006)
|
50
|
100
|
200
|
400
|
1.000
|
USA
(2006)
|
--
|
3.708
|
4.820
|
5.785
|
8.529
|
* These figures refer to respectively 'senior lecturer' and 'associate professor' positions.
** This figure refers to the undifferentiated 'lecturer' position.
** These figures refer to respectively the 'professor' and 'chair' positions.
All figures are gross. For taxing comparisons see: http://www.oecd.org . All countries provide different social benefits, social security, child care, family allowance, etc, to their citizens.
The salaries are provided by institutions or ministries in the respective countries.
For more detailed information salary levels see the individual country links.
Note that in the different countries there are various ways to top the salary with bonuses and other means of income. This is especially true in the case of Spain and the U.S. where the salaries comparatively seem very low, but the actual salary can be much higher depending on the productivity and outside activities of the individual.
In April 2007 the European Commission published a comparison of researchers salaries across Europe, based on an online survey. The following chart gives the average salaries adjusted to the cost of living in each country:
Average weighted total yearly salary per countries (2006 in €)
|
Country
|
Average weighted total yearly salary adjusted
|
Country
|
Average weighted total yearly salary adjusted
|
|
Austria
|
62.406
|
Latvia
|
10.488
|
|
Belgium
|
58.462
|
Lithuania
|
13.851
|
|
Bulgaria
|
3.556
|
Luxembourg
|
63.865
|
|
Croatia
|
16.671
|
Malta
|
28.078
|
|
Cyprus
|
45.039
|
Netherlands
|
59.103
|
|
Czech Republic
|
19.620
|
Norway
|
58.997
|
|
Denmark
|
61.355
|
Poland
|
11.659
|
|
Estonia
|
11.748
|
Portugal
|
29.001
|
|
Finland
|
44.635
|
Romania
|
6.286
|
|
France
|
50.879
|
Slovakia
|
9.178
|
|
Germany
|
56.132
|
Slovenia
|
27.756
|
|
Greece
|
25.685
|
Spain
|
34.908
|
|
Hungary
|
15.812
|
Sweden
|
56.053
|
|
Iceland
|
50.803
|
Switzerland
|
82.725
|
|
Ireland
|
60.727
|
Turkey
|
16.249
|
|
Israel
|
42.552
|
United Kingdom
|
56.048
|
|
Italy
|
36.201
|
Source: European Commission, 2007: 43.
The report found bropad differences between salaries in the EU and associated countries, which however were reduced once salaries were adjusted to the cost of living in each country. As expected, countries with a high cost of living were those that paid researchers better. Low-medium salary levels were reported in Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean region, while high-very high salaries were paid in Central Europe and the Nordic countries.
A few countries (Austria, The Netherlands, Israel, Switzerland and Luxembourg) offered avarage salaries in line with the U.S. considering the cost of living.
Other countries outside the EU (Australia, India, Japan) all have average higher remuneration than the EU-25 area considering the cost of living. In Australia and Japan salaries are similar to those of the U.S. The only country in which the average salary was well below the EU was China.
See the report for further info
The ratio between the average salary for researchers and the average GDP per capita (adjusted to the cost of living) varies from country to country. Data show different degrees of investment on research by different countries. For example, with declining values Japan, the UK and the US all provide researchers with salaries higher than their country GDP per capita. Spain and Sweden pay around the same as the average GDP, and Italy pays less.
Click here to see the graph
The table draws on the Commission's study and reports researchers' annual salary average in the EU and associated countries by gender and years of experience.
The table draws on the Commission's study and reports researchers' annual salary average in the EU and associated countries by gender and years of experience.
Total country annualy salary of researchers in EU25 and associated countries, by gender and level of experience (2006, all currencies in purchasing power parities)
Country/years
of experience
(by gender)
|
0-4 y.
Female
Male
|
5-7 y.
Female
Male
|
8-10 y.
Female
Male
|
11-15 y.
Female
Male
|
>15 y.
Female
Male
|
|
Austria
|
34.473
37.244
|
41.921
50.446
|
49.369
63.648
|
56.817 76.850
|
64.266
90.052
|
|
Belgium
|
27.767
26.802
|
35.079 40.933
|
42.392 55.064
|
49.705 69.195
|
57.018
83.326
|
|
Bulgaria
|
2.045
1.961
|
2.668 2.689
|
3.292 3.417
|
3.915
4.144
|
4.539
4.872
|
|
Croatia
|
9.862
9.458
|
12.665
12.124
|
15.468 15.541
|
18.270 19.922
|
21.073
25.537
|
|
Cyprus
|
22.234
21.208
|
28.051 32.147
|
33.867 43.086
|
39.684 54.025
|
45.500
64.964
|
Czech
Republic
|
7.478
10.728
|
10.792 15.015
|
14.105 19.301
|
17.419 23.587
|
20.733
27.874
|
|
Denmark
|
43.117
42.852
|
51.460
52.204
|
59.804 61.556
|
68.147 70.908
|
76.490
80.260
|
|
Estonia
|
4.825
7.691
|
6.939
10.068
|
7.636 12.444
|
8.334 14.821
|
9.053
17.198
|
|
Finland
|
23.369
28.886
|
29.776 36.724
|
36.182 44.563
|
42.589 52.401
|
48.996
60.239
|
|
France
|
30.223
30.726
|
38.859
39.225
|
47.494 50.075
|
56.129 63.926
|
64.765
81.608
|
|
Germany
|
22.143
25.716
|
35.969
38.731
|
49.795 51.746
|
63.621 64.761
|
77.447
77.776
|
|
Greece
|
13.462
11.823
|
19.131
18.370
|
24.800 24.917
|
30.469 31.464
|
36.138
38.011
|
|
Hungary
|
6.902
10.706
|
10.152
13.244
|
13.401 15.783
|
16.650 18.322
|
19.899
20.861
|
|
Iceland
|
45.664
44.713
|
50.070
50.073
|
52.273 55.432
|
54.475 60.792
|
58.881
66.152
|
|
Ireland
|
26.428
20.290
|
39.691
41.073
|
52.954 61.856
|
66.217 82.639
|
79.480
103.422
|
|
Israel
|
16.329
13.523
|
22.407
20.453
|
28.486 30.933
|
34.564 46.783
|
40.643
70.754
|
|
Italy
|
12.244
12.760
|
19.777
23.488
|
27.310 34.216
|
34.844 44.944
|
42.377
55.672
|
|
Latvia
|
12.000
-
|
14.667
-
|
17.335
-
|
20.002
-
|
22.670
-
|
|
Lithuania
|
7.356
6.836
|
8.286
9.068
|
9.216 11.299
|
10.146 13.531
|
11.076
15.763
|
|
Luxembourg
|
24.742
43.578
|
40.365
53.864
|
55.988 64.150
|
71.611 74.436
|
87.234
84.722
|
|
Malta
|
24.364
21.364
|
27.267 23.746
|
30.169 26.393
|
33.071 29.336
|
35.974
32.606
|
|
Netherlands
|
22.518
31.921
|
35.655
47.095
|
48.792 62.269
|
61.929 77.443
|
75.066
92.617
|
|
Norway
|
49.031
52.829
|
54.174
58.346
|
59.316 63.864
|
64.459 69.381
|
69.602
74.898
|
|
Poland
|
5.921
8.453
|
8.088
10.166
|
10.255 12.226
|
12.421 14.703
|
14.588
17.682
|
|
Portugal
|
10.512
12.051
|
14.693
17.541
|
20.535 25.532
|
28.702 37.164
|
40.115
54.095
|
|
Romania
|
3.813
2.476
|
4.696
4.474
|
5.785 6.473
|
7.126
8.472
|
8.778
10.471
|
|
Slovakia
|
5.547
5.895
|
6.794
7.187
|
8.041 8.762
|
9.287 10.681
|
10.534
13.021
|
|
Slovenia
|
16.424
17.976
|
22.502
22.372
|
28.581 27.844
|
34.659 34.654
|
40.737
43.130
|
|
Spain
|
16.416
17.228
|
22.858 22.955
|
29.300 30.586
|
35.742 40.754
|
42.184
54.301
|
|
Sweden
|
28.591
28.012
|
41.900 42.655
|
55.209 57.298
|
68.518 71.941
|
81.827
86.584
|
|
Sweden
|
28.591
28.012
|
41.900
42.655
|
55.209 57.298
|
68.518 71.941
|
81.827
86.584
|
|
Switzerland
|
39.599
40.862
|
55.711
61.075
|
71.823 81.288
|
87.935
101.501
|
104.047 121.714
|
|
Turkey
|
7.674
8.634
|
10.707
11.387
|
13.740 15.016
|
16.773 19.803
|
19.806
26.116
|
United
Kingdom
|
25.411
29.060
|
37.461 38.608
|
49.511 51.293
|
61.561 68.146
|
73.611
90.536
|
Source: European Commission, 2007: 47
Here too the report found wide differences between countries. For example, in the UK one can expect a high progression moving from the first (0-4) to the last (>15) stage of the career stages considered by the report. At the same time, Denmark offers higher salaries already in the first stage but progression is limited (around 90%) compared to the UK (around 235%).
Women earn less than men, with significant differences in all the countries. In some (Estonia, Czech Republic, Israel and Portugal) the gap is above 35%. In others (Bulgaria, Greece, Denmark, Iceland, Norway and Malta) it is below 15%.
See the report for more info.
Bruegel (2007), 'Why Reform Europe's Universities?', Policy Brief Series, 2007/04.
European Commission (2007), Study on the Remuneration of Researchers in the Public and Private Commercial Sectors (pdf).